The Barriers for Women in Career Advancement

The Barriers for Women in C arr AdvancementChapter 2LITERATURE REVIEWThis sections presents a review of belles-lettres pertinent to this oeuvre including a hi stratum of instructing, the barriers for women in move increase, the family in the midst of mentoring and flight advancement, mentoring in healthc be administration, and the advantages and disadvantages of formal and informal mentoring.History of MentoringMentoring is rooted in Greek mythology and arose as a concept in a story where Athena, the goddess of wisdom, assumed a staminate form and called her ego Mentor. Athena acted as a surrogate p atomic number 18nt to Telemachus when the boys father, Odysseus, fought in the Trojan War. Athena provided guidance and counsel to the boy as the latter assumed the leading of the household and educate him to be Ithacas future ruler (Butler, 1944). Hence, the concept of mentoring has been shaped by the t ane of a relationship where a more experienced adult guides a youthful indivi multiple (Kram, 1985). to a greater extent specifically, Kram (1985) describes mentoring as a relationship amongst a younger adult and an older, more experienced adult who helps the younger individual learn to navigate the adult world and the world of lop (p. 2). Lacey (2001) states that the term mentor has since evolved to represent either a counselor, teacher, or shoplifter and the mentoring relationship now entails a partnership where the primary purpose is the supercede of information and knowledge distinct to a given industry or organization. Other authors refer to mentoring relationships as sponsor, patron, and godfather relationships (Rowe, 1978, as cited in Kram, 1985). A literature review on mentoring across various disciplines by Hayes (2001) produced the commentary of mentoring as a process of building trust between devil people, one is experienced and the other is a newcomer (p. 29). Carmin (1988) provides a panoptic definition of mentoringMentoring is a complex, interactive process, occurring between individuals of differing trains of experience and expertise that incorporates interpersonal or psychosocial development, biography, and/or educational development, and socialization contributions into the relationship. This one-to-one relationship is itself developmental and proceeds through a series of stages which help to determine both the conditions affecting the outcomes of the process. (p. 10)Mentoring as a field of study started with the 1978 research of Levinson et al. on adult mens course development experiences (as cited in Kram, 1985). Levinson and his colleagues concluded that the mentoring relationship was a pivotal experience in a young adults life because past from receiving knowledge from mentors, the experience similarly shapes a persons self-esteem and professional identity.Kram (1995) identifies both broad types of mentor functions travel-related support and psychosocial support. C areer-related support refe rs to the support mechanisms provided by the mentor that boosts the mentees course advancement inside the organization. Component functions associated with go-related mentoring include sponsorship, exposure and visibility, coaching, protection, and intriguing assignments (p. 86). Due to the mentors influence and high status, experience, and leadership position in the organization, the mentee receives the best hands-on training and gets assistance on learning more to the highest degree the organization itself and its inner grazeings, receives exposure to the mentors social net ca-cas, and acquires promotions. In this regard, the mentor sees him or herself in the mentees shoes and want to groom a future executive director in his or her fashion. Allen Eby (2002) view that mentors and mentee alike bene clothe from the mentoring relationship and that mentors are fueled by the desire to ensure the success of the next genesis of leaders. Kram (1985) theorized the mentors can prov ide five specific career development functions (as cited in Ragins Cotton, 1999)Sponsoring promotions and lateral moves (sponsorship)Coaching the protg (coaching)Protecting the protg from adverse forces (protection)Providing repugn assignments (challenging assignments) andIncreasing the protgs exposure and visibility (exposure). (p. 530)The second mentoring function is psychosocial in nature. The psychosocial function of mentoring addresses those aspects of a relationship that enhance an individuals sense of competence, identity, and specialty in a professional role (Kram, 1985, p. 32). Krams mentor role opening (1985) suggests that there are four components of psychosocial support that mentors can provide to mentees (as cited in Ragins Cotton, 1999)Helping the protg develop a sense of professional self (acceptance and confirmation)Providing problem-solving and a sounding board (counseling)Giving respect and support (friendship) andProviding realisation and role modeling. (p. 530)Where career support is dependent upon the mentors government agency and influence within the organization, psychosocial support focus on the emotional bond and the interpersonal relationship underlying the mentoring relationship. Career support armorial bearings at advancing the protgs career while psychosocial support is geared at improving the protgs personal development.Barriers for Women in Career AdvancementCompared to several(prenominal) decades past, women submit made leaps in terms of advancing toward of age(p) executive positions in one case monopolized by men. However, career advancement opportunities for women still lag considerably compared to the men. Tharenou (1999) estimates that although women in developing countries make up almost half of the entire workforce, save 5 percent of them are situated in top executive positions. A worrisome fact is that while there seems to be tinge opportunities for men and women in entry-level positions, the road toward the more sr. levels are alas blocked for women. While is undeniable that the greater workforce composition of women is one of the most positive social changes in the twenty-first century, struggle for agree opportunity persist as women are still excluded from the top positions in the organizational hierarchy.This phenomenon has been referred to as the chalk detonating device, a term originally utilise in 1986 by a Wall Street journalist to con none the status of women in the corporate world. The term was coined as a verbal description of the complex barriers that block womens opportunities to break through the top levels in the organization. This glass ceiling is peculiarly evident when one looks at rarity of feminine senior executives in organizations of virtually all disciplines.The concept of the glass ceiling was recognized and accepted as a public term when the 1992 federal Glass Ceiling Commission concluded that there were indeed several barriers that hindered women and o ther minority groups to achieve their full warmial within the career ladder. The selfsame(prenominal) study confirmed that gendered structural and organizational barriers celebrateed women from attaining the most senior level positions in several companies. Moreover, it lamented on the so-called hegemonic masculinity that is distributive in the organizational flori shade in corporate America (Woody Weiss, 1994). galore(postnominal) studies have reported on the various barriers that women encounter during professional advancement. A report by womens group Catalyst (1994) listed the most common barriers determine by mid-level managers that pr levelt them from advancing further into the top-level positions. These barriers include (as cited in Arnold Shinew, 1997)stereotyping and preconcepts roughly suitability for leadership positions projection from informal networks of communicationabsence of sound commission training for distaff employeesfailure to hold upper level manage rs accountable for developing and advancing womeninadequate appraisal and compensation systems, leaders to inequities in salariesinflexibility in defining work schedules andabsence of programs that alter employees to balance work/non-work responsibilities. (pp. 42-43)The work of researchers Henderson and Bialeschki (1995) has been influential in comprehensive studies that aim to identify the different barriers that women face in their pursuit of upward career mobility. They conducted a nationwide survey among women practitioners in the recreation and leisure industry. The researchers sort out the different barriers into three broad categories individual, organizational, and home/family. By examining career patterns, family situations, career satisfaction, and equity in the workplace issues, they found that stereotyping and gender-based discrimination remains the sterling(prenominal) barrier for women that prevent them from advancing to the top tier of the corporate ladder. More than half of them also reported being sexually harassed. Other identify barriers include the wishing of training, overlook of mentors, and womens animadversion from male-only networks.Another study by Frisby and Brown (1991) surveyed 30 women mid-level managers belonging to leisure-oriented organizations in vagabond to examine their career experiences as they struggled their way to the top. Consistent with preceding(prenominal) fixings, women in middle management reported that the most common barriers they encountered from advancing in their careers include career interruptions due to pregnancy or family issues, the lack of role models or mentors, the lack of support from senior executive to promote women, exclusion, gender stereotyping, personal factors, and exclusion from male-dominated social networks.Frisby (1992) did a follow-up study to examine in a more comprehensive manner the factors that hinder the career development of women in leisure organizations. Using a descrip tive-quantitative design, Frisby grouped the various barriers reported by women managers that have influenced their career direction and mobility. There were legislative factors such(prenominal) as gender discrimination, pay equity, and laws on sexual harassment organizational factors such as patriarchy, exclusion from networks, flexile work options, difficulty in relations with male-dominated organizational culture, lack of training and mentoring opportunity and individual factors such as gender, education, and geographical mobility and lastly, family factors that include lack of support from spouse and difficulty equilibrate work-family responsibilities.Due to the complex and varied nature of identified barriers for women, studies by Henderson Bialeschki (1995) and by Woody Weiss (1994) have grouped these barriers into three categories a) Individual factors b) Organizational/ geomorphological factors and c) Family or Home-related factors.Individual factors as barriersIndividu al traits and skills are often attributed for preview career advancement among females. Individual factors such as age, educational attainment, skills, experience, proficiency, or ability are related to advancement. There remains gender stereotypes on what men can do that women cannot that justifies greater upward mobility for males. most persuade that women lack the necessary attributes such as assertiveness, demand, or networking skills to advance in careers (Vecchio 2002). The simple fact of being female thus becomes a potent barrier for career advancement among women. For instance, there is a double well-worn when it comes to appreciating leadership in females. Morrison, Greene and Tischler (1985) opine that when women display competence in leadership, they are viewed negatively while men who visibly lead are appreciated. Similarly, epoch in vacated executive positions is usually based on the gender of the previous occupant of the position or the job. Since most senior exe cutive positions are dominated by males, women are immediately excluded from consideration. Moreover, females are placed in traditionally-female positions such as staffing and human resources and cannot be promoted to high positions that are traditionally-male in nature. Age can also be a barrier as individuals who are deemed similarly young or too old whitethorn not be deemed suitable for senior executive positions.Organizational factors as barriersMost research studies conclude that the biggest barriers to career advancement among women are beyond their personal control. The Glass Ceiling Commission indicts organizational and structural barriers as the most predominant barrier toward womens upward climb in the career ladder (Woody Weiss, 1994).Bergmann (1986) opined that organizational structures specifically job assignments are designed to prevent women from ascending to the top. Job assignments are considered to be the primary route for career advancement. Organizational str uctures steer away womens potential for upward mobility by skinny them to work roles that are considered to be womens occupations. Bergmann cites a study by Forbes that the fastest way to the top of corporations is placement in functional areas or life-or-death job assignments that lead to the accomplishment of critical organizational tasks (p. 88).Klenke (1996) suggests that women face an exclusion policy that prevents them from penetrating the old boys network. Access to such networks is considered a earthshaking step to gaining upward mobility in organizations. one and only(a) can access information and learn more about the organization not possible in regular communication channels.Another barrier cited by women is the lack of mentoring opportunities from male superiors. For instance, Dreher and Cox (1996) found that females find it difficult to gain informal mentors who are male. If they do find a male mentor, they also face challenges in the course of the mentoring relati onships especially in relation to its nature and possibility of misinterpretation. Some female managers even report being subjected to sexual harassment.Cooper capital of Mississippi (2001) contends that the scarcity of women role models is another perceived barrier toward advancement. Organizational leadership is predominantly patterned after the male form of leadership. Since acquiring senior executive positions are blocked, developing women role models that would inspire and motivate women and neutralise male-dominate culture in the organization becomes challenging. Moreover, because women lack opportunities for role modeling or mentoring relationships, they often fail to plan their career and build effective networking strategies.The macrocosm of stereotyping has been found to affect womens career advancement deeply. Because of gender stereotyping, women feel insulate and discouraged because they perceive themselves unable to blend well or fit in with the patriarchal culture o f senior executive leadership. Sometimes, this perception leads them to take that have to change considerably in order to suit the male-dominated culture of the top hierarchy.Davidson and Cooper (1986) report that gender stereotyping in the organization leads to higher stress levels among women than men. This is because gender stereotyping often pressures women to exert extra effort or to work harder and perform better than their male counterparts in order to judge themselves equal to them. Women tend to believe that in order to achieve their career goals, they have to over-perform to counter the effects of negative gender stereotyping. Even when women are promoted and do acquire senior executive status, there is a prevailing norm that they have to perform even better than their male colleagues to rise themselves worthy of the position.Powell and Butterfield (as cited in Collinson Hean, 2001) state that stereotyping also leads to social isolation among female managers and their heavy dependence on formalized relationships for career advancement. Female managers rig a prime on their professional portfolio and credentials when they pursue promotional opportunities whereas men can depend on informal networks to advance in their careers.Collinson and Hearn (2001) believe that unless the patriarchal nature of institutions are broken use up, women will find it difficult to advance their careers in what is considered male territory. They define patriarchy as a process and a context through which male achievement is promoted by men and institutions. Patriarchy is a stumbling block for women because it controls access to graded power and characteristics of knowledge claims (Collinson and Hearn, 2001, p. 23). In this surroundings, cultural practices and information flow indicate male authority, hence, placing women as mere subordinates to men. However, the problem with patriarchy is that it is a complemental process that is legitimized by both women and men a nd forms part of the organizational culture. In this manner, male dominance becomes a self-perpetuating phenomenon in organizations. Moreover, Collison and Hearn (2001) opine that executive culture is a male realm. They believe that women are not accepted tout ensemble into the workforce but are merely tolerated. Hence, the notion of patriarchal elitism especially in top executive culture is widespread (p. 8).Pringle (1999) contends that female managers lack access to networks, trainings, and mentoring programs because they are usually gender-based and male-gendered. The domination of men in organizations is carry on with constant identification with one another. Perpetuating a gendered organizational culture leaves women managers single out and places them in a situation where executive leadership feels very very much like engaging in constant physical combat (Sinclair, as cited in Pringle, 1999, p.8).Home-related factors as barriersThe barriers that women encounter extend far beyond the curb of the workplace to the home. For many female managers, the home environment presents several obstacles that mustinessiness be overcome in order to achieve upward mobility.One obstacle is that some women managers, especially, those with families, experience the so-called second shift syndrome where they must work on the first shift in the workplace and reside on the second shift in the home environment. The freight of cheat work-related goals with family responsibilities is a serious concern for some women. Women who find themselves in this status are also called dual career women where performance at work and at home are necessary. To perform this balancing act between professional development and personal life may prove too difficult for some women in many ways. Some of them eventually may find inadequate support from their respective families to pursue career advancement goals.A 1995 survey by recruiting company Robert Haff and Associates (1995) found that more than 80 percent of women managers who were interviewed preferred a job that featured more flexible hours, provided more family time, and slow-paced advancement than grueling jobs that featured rapid career mobility. In a sense, because of additional right at home and with their families, women do not perceive career mobility as a methodical rise to power (Aburdene Naisbitt, as cited in Pringle, 1999, p. 43). Unlike the men, women do not focus on the singular objective of professional advancement but struggle to do it all and come up with more creative ways to attract professional success.Research also reports that women managers continue to bear the brunt of carrying the double burden of family and work. They have to be successful equally in the home and at work. In the home environment, they expect to assume the manifold tasks of wife and homemaker and struggle to become equals with men in the workplace at the same time. Sue Newell opines that so long as women continue to juggle these dual roles, they may never achieve the parity they need and deserve in relation to men in the work environment (Newell, 1992).However, studies have also found the home and family-related barriers do not necessarily intercept with motivation and career success among many women. The problem with having the additional burden of family responsibility for women is that it is viewed as a negative thing. Research has suggested that many companies look at women with home-related commitments with disfavor (Swiss Walker, as cited in Pringle, 1999). What is worse is that some women may even be penalized career-wise for having commitments outside of the professional realm. Having marital and family responsibilities may not interfere in terms of commitment among women but these factors might slow down the promotional opportunities of woman managers. Some women have reported that the workplace was inviting and contributory to success when they were single and changed considerably to a more unwelcome environment when they got married and had children.In an article, management expert Douglas T. Hall (1990) suggested that in order to provide more access for women in terms of career advancement, companies need to come up with strategies that promote balance between work and family responsibilities. Among the strategies he recommend were more flexible work schedules and expanded use of home-based work option.